<!DOCTYPE html>
<html class="client-nojs vector-feature-night-mode-disabled vector-feature-language-in-header-enabled vector-feature-language-in-main-page-header-disabled vector-feature-page-tools-pinned-disabled vector-feature-toc-pinned-clientpref-1 vector-feature-main-menu-pinned-disabled vector-feature-limited-width-clientpref-1 vector-feature-limited-width-content-enabled vector-feature-custom-font-size-clientpref-1 vector-feature-appearance-pinned-clientpref-1 vector-sticky-header-enabled" lang="en" dir="ltr"><head>
<meta charset="UTF-8">
<title>Napoleonic Code</title>
<meta name="viewport" content="width=device-width, initial-scale=1.0">
<link rel="canonical" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Napoleonic_Code"> <link href="./mw/ext.cite.styles.css" rel="stylesheet" type="text/css">
<link href="./mw/skins.vector.icons.css" rel="stylesheet" type="text/css">
<link href="./mw/skins.vector.search.codex.styles.css" rel="stylesheet" type="text/css">
<link href="./mw/skins.vector.styles.css" rel="stylesheet" type="text/css">
<link href="./mw/user.styles.css" rel="stylesheet" type="text/css">
<meta name="ResourceLoaderDynamicStyles" content="">
<link rel="stylesheet" type="text/css" href="./mw/site.styles.css">
<link rel="stylesheet" type="text/css" href="./mw/noscript.css">
<link rel="stylesheet" type="text/css" href="./footer.css">
<link rel="stylesheet" type="text/css" href="./vector-2022.css">
</head>
<body class="skin--responsive skin-vector skin-vector-search-vue mediawiki ltr sitedir-ltr mw-hide-empty-elt ns-0 ns-subject page-Napoleonic_Code rootpage-Napoleonic_Code skin-vector-2022 action-view">
<div class="mw-page-container">
<div class="mw-page-container-inner">
<div class="mw-content-container">
<main id="content" class="mw-body">
<header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar">
<h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading">
<span id="openzim-page-title" class="mw-page-title-main"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Napoleonic Code</span></span>
</h1>
</header>
<a id="top"></a>
<div id="bodyContent" class="vector-body ve-init-mw-desktopArticleTarget-targetContainer" aria-labelledby="firstHeading" data-mw-ve-target-container="">
<div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content mw-content-ltr" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr">
<p class="mw-empty-elt">
</p>
<style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1295905060">
/* start https://en.wikipedia.org/ */
.mw-parser-output .infobox-subbox{padding:0;border:none;margin:-3px;width:auto;min-width:100%;font-size:100%;clear:none;float:none;background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .infobox-3cols-child{margin:auto}.mw-parser-output .infobox .navbar{font-size:100%}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme)>div:not(.notheme)[style]{background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme)>div:not(.notheme)[style]{background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media(min-width:640px){body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table{display:table!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>caption{display:table-caption!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>tbody{display:table-row-group}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table th,body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table td{padding-left:inherit;padding-right:inherit}}
/* end https://en.wikipedia.org/ */
</style><table class="infobox"><tbody><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-above" style="background-color: #ededed">Civil Code of the French<br><span style="font-size: 85%;"><span title="French-language text"><i lang="fr">Code civil des Français</i></span></span></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-image"><div class="infobox-caption">The Napoleonic Code in the <a href="Historical_Museum_of_the_Palatinate" title="Historical Museum of the Palatinate">Historical Museum of the Palatinate</a> in <a href="Speyer" title="Speyer">Speyer</a></div></td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="background-color: #ededed">Legislature of the <a href="French_Consulate" title="French Consulate">French Consulate</a></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Citation</th><td class="infobox-data"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.legifrance.gouv.fr/codes/texte_lc/LEGITEXT000006070721/2020-09-18/">Code civil</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Territorial extent</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="France" title="France">France</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Enacted by</th><td class="infobox-data"><i><a href="Corps_l%C3%A9gislatif" title="Corps législatif">Corps législatif</a></i></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Signed by</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="First_Consul" class="mw-redirect" title="First Consul">First Consul</a> <a href="Napoleon" title="Napoleon">Napoleon Bonaparte</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="Effective_date" class="mw-redirect" title="Effective date">Effective</a></th><td class="infobox-data">21 March 1804<span style="display: none;"> (<span class="bday dtstart published updated itvstart">1804-03-21</span>)</span></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Introduced by</th><td class="infobox-data">Jacques de Maleville<br><a href="Jean-%C3%89tienne-Marie_Portalis" title="Jean-Étienne-Marie Portalis">Jean Portalis</a><br><a href="F%C3%A9lix-Julien-Jean_Bigot_de_Pr%C3%A9ameneu" title="Félix-Julien-Jean Bigot de Préameneu">Félix Bigot de Préameneu</a><br><a href="Fran%C3%A7ois_Denis_Tronchet" title="François Denis Tronchet">François Tronchet</a></td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="background-color: #ededed"><a href="Repeal" title="Repeal">Repeals</a></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k56510716?rk=21459;2">Civil Code of the French Republic</a> (1803)</td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="background-color: #ededed">Amended by</th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.legifrance.gouv.fr/loda/id/LEGIARTI000038262578/2019-03-25#LEGIARTI000038262578">Law 2019-2022</a> on 1 September 2020</td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-below" style="background-color:#FFFFCC;"><b>Status:</b> Amended</td></tr></tbody></table>
<style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">
/* start https://en.wikipedia.org/ */
.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ul{display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist .mw-empty-li{display:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dt::after{content:": "}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li::after{content:" · ";font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li:last-child::after{content:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li li:first-child::before{content:" (";font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd li:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt li:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li li:last-child::after{content:")";font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol{counter-reset:listitem}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol>li{counter-increment:listitem}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol>li::before{content:" "counter(listitem)"\a0 "}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd ol>li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt ol>li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li ol>li:first-child::before{content:" ("counter(listitem)"\a0 "}
/* end https://en.wikipedia.org/ */
</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1246091330">
/* start https://en.wikipedia.org/ */
.mw-parser-output .sidebar{width:22em;float:right;clear:right;margin:0.5em 0 1em 1em;background:var(--background-color-neutral-subtle,#f8f9fa);border:1px solid var(--border-color-base,#a2a9b1);padding:0.2em;text-align:center;line-height:1.4em;font-size:88%;border-collapse:collapse;display:table}body.skin-minerva .mw-parser-output .sidebar{display:table!important;float:right!important;margin:0.5em 0 1em 1em!important}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-subgroup{width:100%;margin:0;border-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-left{float:left;clear:left;margin:0.5em 1em 1em 0}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-none{float:none;clear:both;margin:0.5em 1em 1em 0}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-outer-title{padding:0 0.4em 0.2em;font-size:125%;line-height:1.2em;font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-top-image{padding:0.4em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-top-caption,.mw-parser-output .sidebar-pretitle-with-top-image,.mw-parser-output .sidebar-caption{padding:0.2em 0.4em 0;line-height:1.2em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-pretitle{padding:0.4em 0.4em 0;line-height:1.2em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-title,.mw-parser-output .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{padding:0.2em 0.8em;font-size:145%;line-height:1.2em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{padding:0.1em 0.4em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-image{padding:0.2em 0.4em 0.4em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-heading{padding:0.1em 0.4em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-content{padding:0 0.5em 0.4em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-content-with-subgroup{padding:0.1em 0.4em 0.2em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-above,.mw-parser-output .sidebar-below{padding:0.3em 0.8em;font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-collapse .sidebar-above,.mw-parser-output .sidebar-collapse .sidebar-below{border-top:1px solid #aaa;border-bottom:1px solid #aaa}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-navbar{text-align:right;font-size:115%;padding:0 0.4em 0.4em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-list-title{padding:0 0.4em;text-align:left;font-weight:bold;line-height:1.6em;font-size:105%}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-list-title-c{padding:0 0.4em;text-align:center;margin:0 3.3em}@media(max-width:640px){body.mediawiki .mw-parser-output .sidebar{width:100%!important;clear:both;float:none!important;margin-left:0!important;margin-right:0!important}}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .sidebar a>img{max-width:none!important}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-list-title,html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-list-title,html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sidebar{display:none!important}}
/* end https://en.wikipedia.org/ */
</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1157919884">
/* start https://en.wikipedia.org/ */
.mw-parser-output .sidebar-person{border:4px double #d69d36}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-person .sidebar-title{font-size:110%;padding:0;line-height:150%}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-person-title-image{background-color:#002466;vertical-align:middle;padding:5px}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-person-title{background-color:#002466;vertical-align:middle;padding:6px;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-person-title>div{font-size:88%;line-height:normal}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-person .sidebar-content{padding:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-person .sidebar-navbar{text-align:center}
/* end https://en.wikipedia.org/ */
</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239334494">
/* start https://en.wikipedia.org/ */
@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output div:not(.notheme)>.tmp-color,html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output p>.tmp-color,html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output table:not(.notheme) .tmp-color{color:inherit!important}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output div:not(.notheme)>.tmp-color,html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output p>.tmp-color,html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output table:not(.notheme) .tmp-color{color:inherit!important}}
/* end https://en.wikipedia.org/ */
</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1214851843">
/* start https://en.wikipedia.org/ */
.mw-parser-output .hidden-begin{box-sizing:border-box;width:100%;padding:5px;border:none;font-size:95%}.mw-parser-output .hidden-title{font-weight:bold;line-height:1.6;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .hidden-content{text-align:left}@media all and (max-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .hidden-begin{width:auto!important;clear:none!important;float:none!important}}
/* end https://en.wikipedia.org/ */
</style><table class="sidebar nomobile nowraplinks sidebar-person vcard hlist"><tbody><tr><th class="sidebar-title"><table><tbody><tr>
<td class="sidebar-person-title-image" style="background-color:#8F00FF;color:inherit;"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"></span></td>
<td class="sidebar-person-title" style="background-color:#8F00FF;color: #FFF;"><div><span class="tmp-color" style="color: #FFF">This article is part of<br>a series about</span></div><span class="vcard"><span class="fn"><a href="Napoleon" title="Napoleon"><span class="tmpl-colored-link" style="color: #FFF; text-decoration: inherit;">Napoleon</span></a></span></span></td>
</tr></tbody></table></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content">
<hr>
<div class="hidden-begin mw-collapsible mw-collapsed" style=""><div class="hidden-title skin-nightmode-reset-color" style=""><a href="House_of_Bonaparte" title="House of Bonaparte">Family</a></div><div class="hidden-content mw-collapsible-content" style="text-align:center;">
<ul><li>Wives
<ul><li><a href="Jos%C3%A9phine_de_Beauharnais" title="Joséphine de Beauharnais">Joséphine de Beauharnais</a></li>
<li><a href="Marie_Louise%2C_Duchess_of_Parma" title="Marie Louise, Duchess of Parma">Marie Louise</a></li></ul></li>
<li>Children
<ul><li><a href="Charles_L%C3%A9on" title="Charles Léon">Charles Léon</a></li>
<li><a href="Alexandre_Walewski" class="mw-redirect" title="Alexandre Walewski">Alexandre Walewski</a></li>
<li><a href="Napoleon_II" title="Napoleon II">Napoleon II</a></li></ul></li>
<li>Parents
<ul><li><a href="Carlo_Maria_Buonaparte" class="mw-redirect" title="Carlo Maria Buonaparte">Carlo Maria Buonaparte</a></li>
<li><a href="Letizia_Ramolino" class="mw-redirect" title="Letizia Ramolino">Letizia Ramolino</a></li></ul></li>
<li>Brothers
<ul><li><a href="Joseph_Bonaparte" title="Joseph Bonaparte">Joseph</a></li>
<li><a href="Lucien_Bonaparte" title="Lucien Bonaparte">Lucien</a></li>
<li><a href="Louis_Bonaparte" title="Louis Bonaparte">Louis</a></li>
<li><a href="J%C3%A9r%C3%B4me_Bonaparte" title="Jérôme Bonaparte">Jérôme</a></li></ul></li>
<li>Sisters
<ul><li><a href="Caroline_Bonaparte" title="Caroline Bonaparte">Caroline</a></li>
<li><a href="Pauline_Bonaparte" title="Pauline Bonaparte">Pauline</a></li>
<li><a href="Elisa_Bonaparte" title="Elisa Bonaparte">Elisa</a></li></ul></li></ul>
</div></div>
<hr>
<div class="hidden-begin mw-collapsible mw-collapsed" style=""><div class="hidden-title skin-nightmode-reset-color" style=""><a href="Napoleonic_era" title="Napoleonic era">Life and career</a></div><div class="hidden-content mw-collapsible-content" style="text-align:center;">
<ul><li><a href="Timeline_of_the_Napoleonic_era" title="Timeline of the Napoleonic era">Timeline</a></li>
<li><a href="First_French_Empire" title="First French Empire">First French Empire</a></li>
<li><a href="List_of_French_client_states" title="List of French client states">Client states</a></li>
<li><a href="Coup_of_18_Brumaire" title="Coup of 18 Brumaire">Coup of 18 Brumaire</a></li>
<li><a href="French_Consulate" title="French Consulate">Consulate</a></li>
<li><a href="Assassination_attempts_on_Napoleon_Bonaparte" title="Assassination attempts on Napoleon Bonaparte">Assassination attempts</a></li>
<li>Constitutions
<ul><li><a href="Constitution_of_the_Year_VIII" title="Constitution of the Year VIII">1799</a></li>
<li><a href="Constitution_of_the_Year_X" title="Constitution of the Year X">1802</a></li>
<li><a href="Constitution_of_the_Year_XII" title="Constitution of the Year XII">1804</a></li>
<li><a href="Charter_of_1815" title="Charter of 1815">1815</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="Napoleonic_Wars" title="Napoleonic Wars">Napoleonic Wars</a></li>
<li><a href="Coronation_of_Napoleon" title="Coronation of Napoleon">Coronation</a></li>
<li><a href="Louisiana_Purchase" title="Louisiana Purchase">Sale of Louisiana</a></li>
<li><a href="Napoleon's_planned_invasion_of_the_United_Kingdom" title="Napoleon's planned invasion of the United Kingdom">Planned invasion of the United Kingdom</a></li>
<li><a href="Napoleon_in_Holland" title="Napoleon in Holland">Holland</a></li>
<li><i><a href="Mesures_usuelles" title="Mesures usuelles">Mesures usuelles</a></i></li>
<li><a href="Napoleonic_looting_of_art" title="Napoleonic looting of art">Looting of art</a></li>
<li><a href="Napoleonic_tactics" title="Napoleonic tactics">Tactics</a></li>
<li><a href="Napoleonic_weaponry_and_warfare" title="Napoleonic weaponry and warfare">Weaponry and warfare</a></li>
<li><a href="Treaty_of_Fontainebleau_(1814)" title="Treaty of Fontainebleau (1814)">1st abdication</a>
<ul><li><a href="Principality_of_Elba" title="Principality of Elba">1st exile</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="Route_Napol%C3%A9on" title="Route Napoléon">Route Napoléon</a></li>
<li><a href="Abdication_of_Napoleon%2C_1815" class="mw-redirect" title="Abdication of Napoleon, 1815">2nd abdication</a></li>
<li><a href="Death_of_Napoleon" class="mw-redirect" title="Death of Napoleon">Death</a>
<ul><li><a href="Death_mask_of_Napoleon" title="Death mask of Napoleon">mask</a></li></ul></li></ul>
</div></div>
<hr>
<div class="hidden-begin mw-collapsible mw-collapsed" style=""><div class="hidden-title skin-nightmode-reset-color" style=""><a href="Military_career_of_Napoleon" title="Military career of Napoleon">Battles and wars</a></div><div class="hidden-content mw-collapsible-content" style="text-align:center;">
<div class="center"><b><a href="French_Revolutionary_Wars" title="French Revolutionary Wars">French Revolutionary Wars</a></b></div>
<ul><li><div class="center"><a href="War_of_the_First_Coalition" title="War of the First Coalition">War of the First Coalition</a></div>
<ul><li><a href="French_Revolution" title="French Revolution">French Revolution</a>
<ul><li><a href="Siege_of_Toulon_(1793)" title="Siege of Toulon (1793)">Siege of Toulon</a></li>
<li><i><a href="13_Vend%C3%A9miaire" title="13 Vendémiaire">13 Vendémiaire</a></i></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="Italian_Campaign_of_1796-1797" class="mw-redirect" title="Italian Campaign of 1796-1797">Italian Campaign of 1796-1797</a>
<ul><li><a href="Montenotte_Campaign" class="mw-redirect" title="Montenotte Campaign">Montenotte Campaign</a></li>
<li><a href="Battle_of_Lodi" title="Battle of Lodi">Battle of Lodi</a></li>
<li><a href="Battle_of_Castiglione" title="Battle of Castiglione">Battle of Castiglione</a></li>
<li><a href="Battle_of_Bassano" title="Battle of Bassano">Battle of Bassano</a></li>
<li><a href="Battle_of_Arcole" title="Battle of Arcole">Battle of Arcole</a></li>
<li><a href="Battle_of_Rivoli" title="Battle of Rivoli">Battle of Rivoli</a></li>
<li><a href="Siege_of_Mantua_(1796-1797)" class="mw-redirect" title="Siege of Mantua (1796-1797)">Siege of Mantua</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="Fall_of_the_Republic_of_Venice" title="Fall of the Republic of Venice">Fall of Venice</a></li></ul></li>
<li><div class="center"><a href="French_campaign_in_Egypt_and_Syria" class="mw-redirect" title="French campaign in Egypt and Syria">French campaign in Egypt and Syria</a></div>
<ul><li><a href="Battle_of_the_Pyramids" title="Battle of the Pyramids">Battle of the Pyramids</a></li>
<li><a href="Battle_of_Mount_Tabor_(1799)" title="Battle of Mount Tabor (1799)">Battle of Mount Tabor</a></li>
<li><a href="Siege_of_Acre_(1799)" title="Siege of Acre (1799)">Siege of Acre</a></li>
<li><a href="Battle_of_Abukir_(1799)" title="Battle of Abukir (1799)">Battle of Aboukir</a></li></ul></li>
<li><div class="center"><a href="War_of_the_Second_Coalition" title="War of the Second Coalition">War of the Second Coalition</a></div>
<ul><li><a href="Marengo_campaign" title="Marengo campaign">Marengo campaign</a>
<ul><li><a href="Battle_of_Marengo" title="Battle of Marengo">Battle of Marengo</a></li></ul></li></ul></li></ul>
<div class="center"><b><a href="Napoleonic_Wars" title="Napoleonic Wars">Napoleonic Wars</a></b></div>
<ul><li><div class="center"><a href="War_of_the_Third_Coalition" title="War of the Third Coalition">War of the Third Coalition</a></div>
<ul><li><a href="Ulm_Campaign" class="mw-redirect" title="Ulm Campaign">Ulm Campaign</a>
<ul><li><a href="Battle_of_Ulm" title="Battle of Ulm">Battle of Ulm</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="Battle_of_Austerlitz" title="Battle of Austerlitz">Battle of Austerlitz</a></li></ul></li>
<li><div class="center"><a href="War_of_the_Fourth_Coalition" title="War of the Fourth Coalition">War of the Fourth Coalition</a></div>
<ul><li><a href="Battle_of_Jena-Auerstedt" class="mw-redirect" title="Battle of Jena-Auerstedt">Battle of Jena-Auerstedt</a></li>
<li><a href="Greater_Poland_uprising_(1806)" class="mw-redirect" title="Greater Poland uprising (1806)">Greater Poland Uprising</a></li>
<li><a href="Battle_of_Eylau" title="Battle of Eylau">Battle of Eylau</a></li>
<li><a href="Battle_of_Friedland" title="Battle of Friedland">Battle of Friedland</a></li></ul></li>
<li><div class="center"><a href="Peninsular_War" title="Peninsular War">Peninsular War</a></div>
<ul><li><a href="Battle_of_Somosierra" title="Battle of Somosierra">Battle of Somosierra</a></li></ul></li>
<li><div class="center"><a href="War_of_the_Fifth_Coalition" title="War of the Fifth Coalition">War of the Fifth Coalition</a></div>
<ul><li><a href="Battle_of_Eckm%C3%BChl" title="Battle of Eckmühl">Battle of Eckmühl</a></li>
<li><a href="Battle_of_Aspern-Essling" title="Battle of Aspern-Essling">Battle of Aspern-Essling</a></li>
<li><a href="Battle_of_Wagram" title="Battle of Wagram">Battle of Wagram</a></li></ul></li>
<li><div class="center"><a href="French_invasion_of_Russia" title="French invasion of Russia">French invasion of Russia</a></div>
<ul><li><a href="Battle_of_Smolensk_(1812)" title="Battle of Smolensk (1812)">Battle of Smolensk</a></li>
<li><a href="Battle_of_Borodino" title="Battle of Borodino">Battle of Borodino</a></li>
<li><a href="Battle_of_the_Berezina" class="mw-redirect" title="Battle of the Berezina">Battle of the Berezina</a></li></ul></li>
<li><div class="center"><a href="War_of_the_Sixth_Coalition" title="War of the Sixth Coalition">War of the Sixth Coalition</a></div>
<ul><li><a href="German_campaign_of_1813" title="German campaign of 1813">German campaign of 1813</a>
<ul><li><a href="Battle_of_L%C3%BCtzen_(1813)" title="Battle of Lützen (1813)">Battle of Lützen</a></li>
<li><a href="Battle_of_Bautzen_(1813)" title="Battle of Bautzen (1813)">Battle of Bautzen</a></li>
<li><a href="Battle_of_Dresden" title="Battle of Dresden">Battle of Dresden</a></li>
<li><a href="Battle_of_Leipzig" title="Battle of Leipzig">Battle of Leipzig</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="Campaign_in_north-east_France_(1814)" title="Campaign in north-east France (1814)">Campaign of France</a>
<ul><li><a href="Battle_of_La_Rothi%C3%A8re" title="Battle of La Rothière">Battle of La Rothière</a></li>
<li><a href="Six_Days'_Campaign" title="Six Days' Campaign">Six Days' Campaign</a>
<ul><li><a href="Battle_of_Vauchamps" title="Battle of Vauchamps">Battle of Vauchamps</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="Battle_of_Montereau" title="Battle of Montereau">Battle of Montereau</a></li>
<li><a href="Battle_of_Laon" title="Battle of Laon">Battle of Laon</a></li>
<li><a href="Battle_of_Reims_(1814)" title="Battle of Reims (1814)">Battle of Reims</a></li>
<li><a href="Battle_of_Arcis-sur-Aube" title="Battle of Arcis-sur-Aube">Battle of Arcis-sur-Aube</a></li></ul></li></ul></li>
<li><div class="center"><a href="Hundred_Days" title="Hundred Days">Hundred Days</a></div>
<ul><li><a href="Waterloo_campaign" title="Waterloo campaign">Waterloo campaign</a>
<ul><li><a href="Battle_of_Ligny" title="Battle of Ligny">Battle of Ligny</a></li>
<li><a href="Battle_of_Waterloo" title="Battle of Waterloo">Battle of Waterloo</a></li></ul></li></ul></li></ul>
</div></div>
<hr>
<div class="hidden-begin mw-collapsible mw-collapsed" style=""><div class="hidden-title skin-nightmode-reset-color" style="">Views</div><div class="hidden-content mw-collapsible-content" style="text-align:center;">
<ul><li><a href="Napoleon_and_the_Catholic_Church" title="Napoleon and the Catholic Church">Catholic Church</a>
<ul><li><a href="Concordat_of_1801" title="Concordat of 1801">Concordat of 1801</a></li>
<li><a href="Napoleon_Tiara" title="Napoleon Tiara">Tiara</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="Napoleon_and_the_Jews" title="Napoleon and the Jews">Jewish people</a>
<ul><li><a href="Grand_Sanhedrin" title="Grand Sanhedrin">Grand Sanhedrin</a></li>
<li><a href="Infamous_Decree" title="Infamous Decree">Infamous Decree</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="Napoleon_and_Protestants" title="Napoleon and Protestants">Protestants</a>
<ul><li><a href="Organic_Articles" title="Organic Articles">Organic Articles</a></li></ul></li>
<li>Slavery
<ul><li><a href="Law_of_20_May_1802" title="Law of 20 May 1802">Law of 20 May 1802</a></li>
<li><a href="Saint-Domingue_expedition" title="Saint-Domingue expedition">Saint-Domingue expedition</a></li></ul></li></ul>
</div></div>
<hr>
<div class="hidden-begin mw-collapsible mw-collapsed" style=""><div class="hidden-title skin-nightmode-reset-color" style="">Homes and honours</div><div class="hidden-content mw-collapsible-content" style="text-align:center;">
<ul><li><a href="Statue_of_Napoleon_(Rouen)" class="mw-redirect" title="Statue of Napoleon (Rouen)">Equestrian statue</a></li>
<li><a href="Palace_of_Fontainebleau" title="Palace of Fontainebleau">Palace of Fontainebleau</a></li>
<li><a href="Les_Invalides" title="Les Invalides">Les Invalides</a></li>
<li><a href="Longwood_House" title="Longwood House">Longwood House</a></li>
<li><i><a href="Maison_Bonaparte" title="Maison Bonaparte">Maison Bonaparte</a></i></li>
<li><i><a href="Napoleon_as_Mars_the_Peacemaker" title="Napoleon as Mars the Peacemaker">Napoleon as Mars the Peacemaker</a></i>
<ul><li><a href="Napoleon_as_Mars_the_Peacemaker_(Milan)" title="Napoleon as Mars the Peacemaker (Milan)">Milan</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="Napoleon_Bonaparte_Monument_(Warsaw)" class="mw-redirect" title="Napoleon Bonaparte Monument (Warsaw)">Warsaw monument</a></li></ul>
</div></div>
<hr>
<div class="hidden-begin mw-collapsible mw-collapsed" style=""><div class="hidden-title skin-nightmode-reset-color" style=""><a href="Legacy_of_Napoleon" title="Legacy of Napoleon">Legacy</a></div><div class="hidden-content mw-collapsible-content" style="text-align:center;">
<ul><li><a href="Egyptology#Modern_Egyptology" title="Egyptology">Egyptology</a>
<ul><li><a href="Rosetta_Stone" title="Rosetta Stone">Rosetta Stone</a></li>
<li><i><a href="M%C3%A9moires_sur_l'%C3%89gypte" title="Mémoires sur l'Égypte">Mémoires sur l'Égypte</a></i></li>
<li><i><a href="Description_de_l'%C3%89gypte" title="Description de l'Égypte">Description de l'Égypte</a></i></li>
<li><a href="Institut_d'%C3%89gypte" title="Institut d'Égypte">Institut d'Égypte</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="Bank_of_France" title="Bank of France">Bank of France</a></li>
<li><a href="Prefect_(France)" title="Prefect (France)">French Prefecture System</a></li>
<li><a href="Legion_of_Honour" title="Legion of Honour">Legion of Honour</a></li>
<li><a href="Napol%C3%A9on_(coin)" title="Napoléon (coin)">Coinage</a></li>
<li>Public works
<ul><li><a href="Pont_d'I%C3%A9na" title="Pont d'Iéna">Pont d'Iéna</a></li>
<li><a href="Simplon_Pass" title="Simplon Pass">Simplon Pass</a></li>
<li><a href="Arc_de_Triomphe" title="Arc de Triomphe">Arc de Triomphe</a></li>
<li><a href="Column_of_the_Grande_Arm%C3%A9e" title="Column of the Grande Armée">Column of the Grande Armée</a></li>
<li><a href="Rue_de_la_Victoire" title="Rue de la Victoire">Rue de la Victoire</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="Cultural_depictions_of_Napoleon" title="Cultural depictions of Napoleon">Cultural depictions</a>
<ul><li><a href="Napoleonic_propaganda" title="Napoleonic propaganda">Propaganda</a></li>
<li><a href="Symphony_No._3_(Beethoven)" title="Symphony No. 3 (Beethoven)">Symphony No. 3 (Beethoven)</a></li>
<li><a href="Valentin_Vodnik" title="Valentin Vodnik">Valentin Vodnik</a></li>
<li><i><a href="Pan_Tadeusz" title="Pan Tadeusz">Pan Tadeusz</a></i></li>
<li><a href="War_and_Peace" title="War and Peace">War and Peace</a></li>
<li><a href="Crime_and_Punishment" title="Crime and Punishment">Crime and Punishment</a></li>
<li><a href="Napoleon_complex" title="Napoleon complex">Napoleon complex</a></li>
<li><a href="Red_Napoleon" title="Red Napoleon">"Red Napoleon" term</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="German_Romanticism" title="German Romanticism">German Romanticism</a></li>
<li><a href="Bonapartism" title="Bonapartism">Bonapartism</a></li>
<li><a href="China_is_a_sleeping_giant" title="China is a sleeping giant">"China is a sleeping giant" quote</a></li>
<li><a href="Napoleon's_tomb" title="Napoleon's tomb">Tomb</a>
<ul><li><i><a href="Retour_des_cendres" title="Retour des cendres">Retour des cendres</a></i></li>
<li><a href="Napoleon's_penis" title="Napoleon's penis">Penis</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="Napoleonic_studies" title="Napoleonic studies">Studies</a></li></ul>
</div></div>
<hr></td>
</tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">
/* start https://en.wikipedia.org/ */
.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}
/* end https://en.wikipedia.org/ */
</style></td></tr></tbody></table>
<p>The <b>Napoleonic Code</b> (<a href="French_language" title="French language">French</a>: <i lang="fr">Code Napoléon</i>), officially the <b>Civil Code of the French</b> (<a href="French_language" title="French language">French</a>: <i lang="fr">Code civil des Français</i>; simply referred to as <span title="French-language text"><i lang="fr">Code civil</i></span>), is the <a href="France" title="France">French</a> <a href="Civil_code" title="Civil code">civil code</a> established during the <a href="French_Consulate" title="French Consulate">French Consulate</a> in 1804 and still in force in France, although heavily and frequently amended since its inception.<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Although <a href="Napoleon" title="Napoleon">Napoleon</a> himself was not directly involved in the drafting of the Code, as it was drafted by a commission of four eminent jurists,<sup id="cite_ref-Robert_B._Holtman_1981_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Robert_B._Holtman_1981-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> he chaired many of the commission's plenary sessions,<sup id="cite_ref-Foot01_3-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Foot01-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and his support was crucial to its enactment.<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>
</p><p>The code, with its stress on clearly written and accessible law, was a major milestone in the abolition of the previous patchwork of <a href="Feudalism" title="Feudalism">feudal</a> laws.<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Historian Robert Holtman regards it as one of the few documents that have influenced the whole world.<sup id="cite_ref-Robert_B._Holtman_1981_2-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Robert_B._Holtman_1981-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-:1_6-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>
</p><p>The Napoleonic Code was not the first legal code to be established in a European country with a <a href="Civil_law_(legal_system)" title="Civil law (legal system)">civil-law</a> <a href="List_of_national_legal_systems" title="List of national legal systems">legal system</a>; it was preceded by the <span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la"><a href="Codex_Maximilianeus_bavaricus_civilis" title="Codex Maximilianeus bavaricus civilis">Codex Maximilianeus bavaricus civilis</a></i></span> (<a href="Electorate_of_Bavaria" title="Electorate of Bavaria">Bavaria</a>, 1756), the <span title="German-language text"><i lang="de"><a href="Allgemeines_Landrecht" class="mw-redirect" title="Allgemeines Landrecht">Allgemeines Landrecht</a></i></span> (<a href="Kingdom_of_Prussia" title="Kingdom of Prussia">Prussia</a>, 1794), and the <i><a href="West_Galician_Code" title="West Galician Code">West Galician Code</a></i> (<a href="Kingdom_of_Galicia_and_Lodomeria" title="Kingdom of Galicia and Lodomeria">Galicia</a>, then part of <a href="Austrian_Empire" title="Austrian Empire">Austria</a>, 1797). It was, however, the first modern legal code to be adopted with a pan-European scope, and it strongly influenced the law of many of the countries formed during and after the <a href="Napoleonic_Wars" title="Napoleonic Wars">Napoleonic Wars</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_7-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Robert_B._Holtman_1981_2-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Robert_B._Holtman_1981-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-:1_6-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Napoleonic Code influenced developing countries outside Europe attempting to modernise and defeudalise their countries through legal reforms, such as those in the <a href="Middle_East" title="Middle East">Middle East</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> while in <a href="Latin_America" title="Latin America">Latin America</a> the Spanish and Portuguese had established their own versions of the civil code.<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>
</p>
<meta property="mw:PageProp/toc">
<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History">History</h2></div>
<p>The categories of the Napoleonic Code were not drawn from earlier French law, but instead from <a href="Justinian_I" title="Justinian I">Justinian's</a> sixth-century codification of <a href="Roman_law" title="Roman law">Roman law</a>, the <i><a href="Corpus_Juris_Civilis" title="Corpus Juris Civilis">Corpus Juris Civilis</a></i>, and within it, the <i>Institutes</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <i>Institutes</i> divide into the law of:
</p>
<ol><li>persons</li>
<li>things</li>
<li>actions.</li></ol>
<p>Similarly, the Napoleonic Code divided the law into four sections:
</p>
<ol><li>persons</li>
<li>property</li>
<li>acquisition of property</li>
<li>civil procedure (moved into a separate code in 1806).</li></ol>
<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Prior_codification_attempts">Prior codification attempts</h3></div>
<p>Before the Napoleonic Code, France did not have a single set of <a href="Law" title="Law">laws</a>; law consisted mainly of local customs, sometimes officially compiled in "custumals" (<i><a href="Old_French_law" title="Old French law">coutumes</a></i>), notably the <i><a href="Custom_of_Paris_in_New_France" class="mw-redirect" title="Custom of Paris in New France">Custom of Paris</a></i>. There were also exemptions, <a href="Privilege_(law)" title="Privilege (law)">privileges</a>, and special <a href="Charter" title="Charter">charters</a> granted by kings or other feudal lords. With the Revolution, the last vestiges of feudalism were abolished.
</p><p>Specifically, as to civil law, the many different bodies of law used in different parts of France were to be replaced by a single legal code. The <a href="National_Constituent_Assembly_(France)" title="National Constituent Assembly (France)">Constituent Assembly</a> on 5 October 1790 voted for a codification of French laws, the <a href="French_Constitution_of_1791" title="French Constitution of 1791">Constitution of 1791</a> promised one, and the <a href="National_Assembly_(French_Revolution)" title="National Assembly (French Revolution)">National Assembly</a> adopted a unanimous resolution on 4 September 1791 providing that "there shall be a code of civil laws common for the entire realm."<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, it was the <a href="National_Convention" title="National Convention">National Convention</a> in 1793 which established a special commission headed by <a href="Jean-Jacques-R%C3%A9gis_de_Cambac%C3%A9r%C3%A8s" title="Jean-Jacques-Régis de Cambacérès">Jean-Jacques-Régis de Cambacérès</a> to oversee the drafting process.<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>
</p><p>His drafts of 1793 (for which Cambacérès had been given a one month deadline), 1794, and 1796 were all rejected by a National Convention and the <a href="French_Directory" title="French Directory">French Directory</a> of the time was more preoccupied with the turmoil resulting from various wars and strife with other European powers. The first draft contained 719 articles and was very revolutionary, but was rejected for being too technical and criticised for not being radical or philosophical enough. The second, with only 297 articles, was rejected for being too brief and was criticised for being a mere manual of morals. The third, expanded to 1,104 articles, was presented under the conservative Directory regime, but never even came up for discussion.
</p><p>Another commission, established in December 1799 established a fourth outline drafted in part by Jean-Ignace Jacqueminot (1754–1813). Jacqueminot's draft, the so-called <i>loi Jacqueminot</i>, dealt almost exclusively with persons<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and emphasised the need to reform the <a href="Divorce" title="Divorce">divorce</a> laws, to strengthen parental authority and increase the testator's freedom to dispose of the free portion of his estate.<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It was rejected.
</p>
<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Napoleonic_reforms">Napoleonic reforms</h3></div>
<style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1305433154">
/* start https://en.wikipedia.org/ */
.mw-parser-output .ambox{border:1px solid #a2a9b1;border-left:10px solid #36c;background-color:#fbfbfb;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+link+.ambox{margin-top:-1px}html body.mediawiki .mw-parser-output .ambox.mbox-small-left{margin:4px 1em 4px 0;overflow:hidden;width:238px;border-collapse:collapse;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em}.mw-parser-output .ambox-speedy{border-left:10px solid #b32424;background-color:#fee7e6}.mw-parser-output .ambox-delete{border-left:10px solid #b32424}.mw-parser-output .ambox-content{border-left:10px solid #f28500}.mw-parser-output .ambox-style{border-left:10px solid #fc3}.mw-parser-output .ambox-move{border-left:10px solid #9932cc}.mw-parser-output .ambox-protection{border-left:10px solid #a2a9b1}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-text{border:none;padding:0.25em 0.5em;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image{border:none;padding:2px 0 2px 0.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-imageright{border:none;padding:2px 0.5em 2px 0;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-empty-cell{border:none;padding:0;width:1px}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image-div{width:52px}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .ambox{margin:0 10%}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .ambox{display:none!important}}
/* end https://en.wikipedia.org/ */
</style>
<p>Napoleon's victory at the <a href="Battle_of_Marengo" title="Battle of Marengo">Battle of Marengo</a> allowed him to consolidate his power in France.<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Returning to Paris, he appointed on 12 August 1800 a commission of distinguished jurists and politicians, including Jacques de Maleville, <a href="Fran%C3%A7ois_Denis_Tronchet" title="François Denis Tronchet">François Denis Tronchet</a>, <a href="F%C3%A9lix-Julien-Jean_Bigot_de_Pr%C3%A9ameneu" title="Félix-Julien-Jean Bigot de Préameneu">Félix-Julien-Jean Bigot de Préameneu</a>, <a href="Jean-%C3%89tienne-Marie_Portalis" title="Jean-Étienne-Marie Portalis">Jean-Étienne-Marie Portalis</a> to draft a civil code.<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> For this commission, Cambacérès (now Second Consul), and Napoleon himself chaired the plenary sessions.<sup id="cite_ref-Foot01_3-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Foot01-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> After this process finished, the Code was sent to the <a href="Legislative_Body" class="mw-redirect" title="Legislative Body">Legislative Body</a> as a preliminary bill in December 1801, where it was rejected by a vote of 142 to 139.<sup id="cite_ref-Foot02_17-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Foot02-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In response, Napoleon announced on 2 January 1802 that he was suspending all projects, effectively closing the assemblies' sessions; simultaneously, he went to the <a href="S%C3%A9nat_conservateur" title="Sénat conservateur">Sénat conservateur</a> to berate its members. These tactics cowed the legislature into submission, and gave Napoleon the majority he needed.<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The code finally came into effect on 21 March 1804.<sup id="cite_ref-Foot03_19-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Foot03-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>
</p><p>The process developed mainly out of the various customs, but was inspired by Justinian's sixth-century codification of <a href="Roman_law" title="Roman law">Roman law</a>, the <i><a href="Corpus_Juris_Civilis" title="Corpus Juris Civilis">Corpus Juris Civilis</a></i> and, within that, Justinian's Code (<i>Codex</i>). The Napoleonic Code, however, differed from Justinian's in important ways:
</p>
<ul><li>it incorporated all kinds of earlier rules, not just legislation;</li>
<li>it was not a collection of edited extracts, but a comprehensive rewrite;</li>
<li>its structure was much more rational;</li>
<li>it had no religious content</li>
<li>it was written in the <a href="Vernacular" title="Vernacular">vernacular</a>.</li></ul>
<p>The Napoleonic Code marked a fundamental change in the nature of the <a href="Civil_law_(legal_system)" title="Civil law (legal system)">civil law legal system</a>, making laws clearer and <a href="Rule_of_law" title="Rule of law">more accessible</a>. It also superseded the former conflict between royal legislative power and, particularly in the final years before the Revolution, protests by judges representing views and privileges of the social classes to which they belonged. Such conflict led the Revolutionaries to take a negative view of judges making law.
</p><p>This is reflected in the Napoleonic Code provision prohibiting judges from deciding a case by way of introducing a general rule (Article 5), since the creation of general rules is an exercise of <a href="Legislature" title="Legislature">legislative</a> and not of <a href="Judiciary" title="Judiciary">judicial power</a>. In theory, there is thus no <a href="Case_law" title="Case law">case law</a> in France. However, the courts still had to fill in the gaps in the laws and regulations and, indeed, were prohibited from refusing to do so (Article 4). Moreover, both the code and legislation have required judicial interpretation. Thus a vast body of case law has come into existence, but without any rule of <i><a href="Precedent" title="Precedent">stare decisis</a></i>.
</p>
<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Contents_of_the_Napoleonic_Code">Contents of the Napoleonic Code</h2></div>
<p>The preliminary article of the code established certain important provisions regarding the <a href="Rule_of_law" title="Rule of law">rule of law</a>. Laws could be applied only if they had been <a href="Principle_of_legality_in_French_criminal_law" title="Principle of legality in French criminal law">duly promulgated</a>, and then only if they had previously been officially published (including provisions for publishing delays, given the means of communication available at the time). In brief, no secret laws were authorised. It prohibited <i><a href="Ex_post_facto_law" title="Ex post facto law">ex post facto</a></i> laws (i.e. laws that apply to events that occurred before their introduction). The code also prohibited judges from refusing to do justice on grounds of the insufficiency of the law, thereby encouraging them to interpret the law. On the other hand, it also prohibited judges from making general judgements of a legislative nature (see above).<sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>
</p><p>With regard to family, the code established the supremacy of the husband over his wife and children, the <i>status quo</i> in Europe at the time. Women had even fewer rights than children. Divorce by mutual consent was abolished in 1804.<sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>
</p>
<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Other_French_Napoleonic-era_codes">Other French Napoleonic-era codes</h2></div>
<p>The draft Military Code was presented to Napoleon by the special commission headed by <a href="Pierre_Daru" title="Pierre Daru">Pierre Daru</a> in June 1805; however, as the <a href="War_of_the_Third_Coalition" title="War of the Third Coalition">War of the Third Coalition</a> progressed, the code was put aside and never implemented.
</p><p>In 1791, <a href="Louis-Michel_le_Peletier%2C_marquis_de_Saint-Fargeau" title="Louis-Michel le Peletier, marquis de Saint-Fargeau">Louis Michel le Peletier de Saint-Fargeau</a> presented a new criminal code to the <a href="National_Constituent_Assembly_(France)" title="National Constituent Assembly (France)">National Constituent Assembly</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He explained that it outlawed only "true crimes", and not "phony offences created by superstition, feudalism, the tax system, and [royal] <a href="Despotism" title="Despotism">despotism</a>".<sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He did not list the crimes "created by superstition". The new penal code did not mention <a href="Blasphemy" title="Blasphemy">blasphemy</a>, <a href="Heresy" title="Heresy">heresy</a>, <a href="Sacrilege" title="Sacrilege">sacrilege</a>, <a href="Witchcraft" title="Witchcraft">witchcraft</a>, <a href="Incest" title="Incest">incest</a>, or <a href="Homosexuality" title="Homosexuality">homosexuality</a>, which led to these former offences being swiftly decriminalised. In 1810, a <a href="French_Penal_Code_of_1810" title="French Penal Code of 1810">new criminal code</a> was issued under Napoleon. As with the <a href="French_Penal_Code_of_1791" title="French Penal Code of 1791">Penal Code of 1791</a>, it did not contain provisions for religious crimes, incest, or homosexuality.
</p>
<ul><li>After an overhaul of the entire legal system, the new code of civil procedure was adopted in 1806.</li></ul>
<ul><li>The commercial code (<i>code de commerce</i>) was adopted in 1807.<sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The kernel of the commercial code is the Book III, "Of The Different Modes of Acquiring Property", of the Napoleonic Code, which sets out norms for <a href="Transaction_cost" title="Transaction cost">contracts and transactions</a>.</li></ul>
<ul><li><i>Code d'instruction</i>: In 1808, the <i>code d'instruction criminelle</i> was published, laying out <a href="Criminal_procedure" title="Criminal procedure">criminal procedure</a>. The <i><a href="Parlement" title="Parlement">parlement</a></i> system from before the Revolution, had been much abused, and the criminal courts established by the Revolution were complex and ineffective, subject to many local pressures. The genesis of this code resulted in much debate and the basis of the modern <a href="Inquisitorial_system" title="Inquisitorial system">inquisitorial system</a> of criminal courts in France and many civil law countries. It has significantly changed since, especially with regard to the rights of the defendant.<sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul>
<p>The French Revolution's <a href="Declaration_of_the_Rights_of_Man_and_of_the_Citizen" title="Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen">Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen</a> enunciated the <a href="Presumption_of_innocence" title="Presumption of innocence">presumption of innocence</a> until found guilty. Concerned by the possibility of <a href="Arbitrary_arrest_and_detention" title="Arbitrary arrest and detention">arbitrary arrest and detention</a>, or excessive <a href="Pre-trial_detention" title="Pre-trial detention">remand</a>, Napoleon remarked that care should be taken to preserve personal freedoms, especially before the Imperial Court: "these courts would have a great strength, they should be prohibited from abusing this situation against weak citizens without connections."<sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, remand still was usual for defendants suspected of serious crimes such as murder.
</p><p>The possibility of lengthy remand periods was one criticism, particularly voiced in common law countries, of the Napoleonic Code and its <i>de facto</i> <a href="Presumption_of_innocence" title="Presumption of innocence">presumption of guilt</a>. Another reason was the combination of magistrate and prosecutor into a single role.<sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, with the work of the <i><a href="Examining_magistrate" title="Examining magistrate">juge d'instruction</a></i> accomplished, the trial itself did not have the same <i><a href="De_jure" title="De jure">de jure</a></i> presumption of guilt; for instance, the juror's oath explicitly required jurors not betray the interests of the defendants or ignore their defence.
</p><p>The rules governing court proceedings gave significant power to the prosecution; however, criminal justice in European countries in those days tended to repression. For instance, it was only in 1836 that prisoners charged with a <a href="Felony" title="Felony">felony</a> were given a formal <a href="Right_to_counsel" title="Right to counsel">right to counsel</a> in <a href="Right_to_counsel#In_the_United_Kingdom" title="Right to counsel">England</a>. In comparison, article 294 of the Napoleonic Code of Criminal Procedure allowed the defendant access to a lawyer before a <i><a href="Cour_d'assises" title="Cour d'assises">Cour d'assises</a></i>, and mandated the court to appoint a lawyer for the defendants who did not have one. (Failing to do so nullified the proceedings.)
</p><p>Whether or not the <i>Cour d'assises</i>, which judges severe crimes, should operate with a <a href="Jury" title="Jury">jury</a> was a topic of considerable controversy. Napoleon supported jury trials (or <i>petit jury</i>), and they were finally adopted. On the other hand, Napoleon opposed the <a href="Indictment" title="Indictment">indictment</a> jury ("<a href="Grand_jury" title="Grand jury">grand jury</a>" of <a href="Common_law" title="Common law">common law</a> countries), and preferred to assign this task to the criminal division of the <a href="Appellate_court" title="Appellate court">Court of Appeals</a>. Special courts were created to judge criminals who might intimidate the jury.
</p>
<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="French_codes_in_the_21st_century">French codes in the 21st century</h2></div>
<p>The French codes, now more than 60 in number,<sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> are frequently amended, as well as <a href="Judicial_review" title="Judicial review">judicially re-interpreted</a>. Therefore, for over a century all of the codes in force have been documented in the annually revised editions published by <a href="Dalloz" title="Dalloz">Dalloz</a> (Paris).<sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These editions consist of thorough <a href="Annotation" title="Annotation">annotations</a>, with references to other codes, relevant <a href="Statute" title="Statute">statutes</a>, judicial decisions (even if unpublished), and international instruments. The "small (<i>petit</i>)" version of the Civil Code in this form is nearly 3,000 pages, available in print and online. Additional material, including scholarly articles, is added in the larger "expert (<i>expert</i>)" version and the still larger "mega (<i>méga</i>)" version, both of which are available in print and on searchable <a href="CD-ROM" title="CD-ROM">CD-ROM</a>. By this stage, it has been suggested, the Civil Code has become "less a book than a database".<sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>
</p><p>The sheer number of codes, together with digitisation, led the <i>Commission supérieure de codification</i> to reflect in its annual report for 2011:
</p>
<blockquote><p>The Commission observes that the age of drawing up new codes is probably reaching its end. The aim of a nearly complete codification of the law is no longer pursued, for three reasons: firstly, the technical developments by which texts are provided in non-physical form offer to users modes of access that are comparable in many ways to those available through a code; secondly, the creation of new codes encounters a kind of law of diminishing returns in that, the more progress that is made in the development of new codes, the trickier it becomes to determine in which code particular provisions should be located; and, finally, it is clear that certain kinds of provision [...] are unsuitable for codification, since codification makes sense only when it involves provisions that possess sufficient generality.<sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote>
<p>A year later, the Commission recommended that, after its current codification projects were completed, there should not be any further codes; an additional reason was government delay in publishing reforms that the Commission had completed.<sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The government responded encouragingly in March 2013, but the Commission complains that this has not been followed through; in particular, that the government has abandoned its plan for a public service code (<i>code général de la fonction publique</i>).<sup id="cite_ref-33" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>
</p>
<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Codes_in_other_countries">Codes in other countries</h2></div>
<p>Even though the Napoleonic Code was <a href="Civil_code#Important_civil_codes" title="Civil code">not the first</a> civil code, it was the first modern legal code to be widely adopted in Europe, and it influenced the law of many of the countries formed during and after the <a href="Napoleonic_Wars" title="Napoleonic Wars">Napoleonic Wars</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_7-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Robert_B._Holtman_1981_2-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Robert_B._Holtman_1981-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In the German regions on the west bank of the Rhine (<a href="Palatinate_(region)" title="Palatinate (region)">Rhenish Palatinate</a> and Prussian <a href="Rhine_Province" title="Rhine Province">Rhine Province</a>), the former <a href="Duchy_of_Berg" title="Duchy of Berg">Duchy of Berg</a> and the <a href="Grand_Duchy_of_Baden" title="Grand Duchy of Baden">Grand Duchy of Baden</a>, the Napoleonic Code was influential until the introduction of the <i><a href="B%C3%BCrgerliches_Gesetzbuch" title="Bürgerliches Gesetzbuch">Bürgerliches Gesetzbuch</a></i> in 1900 as the first common civil code for the entire <a href="German_Empire" title="German Empire">German Empire</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Arvind_TT;_Stirton_L_2010_1–29_35-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Arvind_TT;_Stirton_L_2010_1–29-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>
</p><p>A number of factors have been shown by Arvind and Stirton to have had a determinative role in the decision by the German states to receive the code, including territorial concerns, Napoleonic control and influence, the strength of central state institutions, a feudal economy and society, rule by <a href="Liberalism" title="Liberalism">liberal</a> (<a href="Enlightened_absolutism" title="Enlightened absolutism">enlightened despotic</a>) rulers, <a href="Nativism_(politics)" title="Nativism (politics)">nativism</a> among the governing elites, and popular <a href="Anti-French_sentiment" title="Anti-French sentiment">anti-French sentiment</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Arvind_TT;_Stirton_L_2010_1–29_35-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Arvind_TT;_Stirton_L_2010_1–29-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>
</p><p>A civil code with Napoleonic code influences was also adopted in 1864 in <a href="United_Principalities_of_Moldavia_and_Wallachia" title="United Principalities of Moldavia and Wallachia">Romania</a>, and remained in force until 2011.<sup id="cite_ref-36" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>
</p><p>The term "Napoleonic Code" is also used to refer to legal codes of other <a href="Jurisdictions" class="mw-redirect" title="Jurisdictions">jurisdictions</a> that are influenced by the <i>French Code Napoléon</i>, especially the <i><a href="Civil_Code_of_Lower_Canada" title="Civil Code of Lower Canada">Civil Code of Lower Canada</a></i> (replaced in 1994 by the <i><a href="Civil_Code_of_Quebec" title="Civil Code of Quebec">Civil Code of Quebec</a></i>), mainly derived from the <i><a href="Old_French_law" title="Old French law">Coutume de Paris</a></i>, which the British continued to use in <a href="Canada" title="Canada">Canada</a> following the <a href="Treaty_of_Paris_(1763)" title="Treaty of Paris (1763)">1763 Treaty of Paris</a>. However, most of the laws in Latin American countries are not heavily influenced on the Napoleonic Code, as the Spanish and Portuguese versions of the civil code formed the foundation of the Latin American legal systems e.g. the <a href="Chilean_Civil_Code" title="Chilean Civil Code">Chilean</a>, <a href="Law_of_Mexico" title="Law of Mexico">Mexican</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-37" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and Puerto Rican civil codes.<sup id="cite_ref-38" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>
</p><p>In <a href="Mauritius" title="Mauritius">Mauritius</a>, the Civil Code, which originates from the Napoleonic Code, represents an important primary source of law and provides for the rights of individuals, matrimonial regimes, contract law, and property law, amongst others.<sup id="cite_ref-39" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The French Civil Code was extended to Mauritius under the title <i>Code Napoléon</i> by decree of <a href="Charles_Mathieu_Isidore_Decaen" title="Charles Mathieu Isidore Decaen">Charles Mathieu Isidore Decaen</a>, <i>Capitaine-General</i>, on 21 April 1808.<sup id="cite_ref-40" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Code was modified and embodied in Chapter 179 of the Revised Laws of Mauritius 1945, edited by Sir Charlton Lane, former Chief Justice of Mauritius. The 1808 decree was repealed by Act 9 of 1983, but the Revision of Laws Act which was enacted in 1974, made provision, in section 7, for the publication of the Code under the title "Code Civil Mauricien."<sup id="cite_ref-41" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>
</p><p>In the United States, the legal system is largely based on <a href="English_law" title="English law">English common law</a>. But the state of <a href="Louisiana" title="Louisiana">Louisiana</a> is unique in being strongly influenced by French and Spanish legal traditions in <a href="Louisiana_Civil_Code" title="Louisiana Civil Code">its civil code</a>. Spanish and French colonial forces quarreled over Louisiana during most of the 1700s, with Spain ultimately ceding the territory to France in 1800, which in turn <a href="Louisiana_Purchase" title="Louisiana Purchase">sold the territory to the United States</a> in 1803.<sup id="cite_ref-42" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <a href="Tenth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Tenth Amendment to the United States Constitution">10th Amendment</a> to the U.S. Constitution grants states control of laws not specifically given to the federal government, so Louisiana's legal system retains many French elements. Examples of the practical legal differences between Louisiana and the other states include the <a href="Bar_examination" title="Bar examination">bar exam</a> and legal standards of practice for attorneys in Louisiana being significantly different from other states; Louisiana is the only U.S. state to practice <a href="Forced_heirship" title="Forced heirship">forced inheritance</a> of an estate; additionally, some of Louisiana's laws clash with the <a href="Uniform_Commercial_Code" title="Uniform Commercial Code">Uniform Commercial Code</a> practiced by the other 49 states.<sup id="cite_ref-43" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>
</p>
<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2></div>
<ul><li><a href="Contemporary_European_law" title="Contemporary European law">Contemporary European law</a></li>
<li><a href="Labor_Code_(France)" title="Labor Code (France)">Labor Code (France)</a></li></ul>
<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Notes">Notes</h2></div>
<p><sup id="cite_ref-Foot01_3-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Foot01-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>
</p><p><sup id="cite_ref-Foot02_17-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Foot02-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>
</p><p><sup id="cite_ref-Foot03_19-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Foot03-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>
</p>
<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2></div>
<ul><li><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">
/* start https://en.wikipedia.org/ */
.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("./mw/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("./mw/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("./mw/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("./mw/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}
/* end https://en.wikipedia.org/ */
</style><cite id="CITEREFHollins2006" class="citation book cs1">Hollins, David (2006). <i>"Battle of Marengo" in The Encyclopedia of the French Revolutionary and Napoleonic War</i>. ABC-CLIO. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>1-85109-646-9</bdi>.</cite></li></ul>
<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Citations">Citations</h3></div>
<style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">
/* start https://en.wikipedia.org/ */
.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}
/* end https://en.wikipedia.org/ */
</style><div class="reflist">
<div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references">
<li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation book cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k1061517/f2.image"><i>Code civil des Français: édition originale et seule officielle</i></a>. Paris: L'Imprimerie de la République. 1804<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">28 November</span> 2016</span> – via Gallica.</cite></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-Robert_B._Holtman_1981-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Robert_B._Holtman_1981_2-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Robert_B._Holtman_1981_2-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Robert_B._Holtman_1981_2-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Robert_B._Holtman_1981_2-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Robert B. Holtman, <i>The Napoleonic Revolution</i> (Baton Rouge: <a href="Louisiana_State_University_Press" title="Louisiana State University Press">Louisiana State University Press</a>, 1981)</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-Foot01-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Foot01_3-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Foot01_3-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Foot01_3-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFRoberts,_Andrew2014" class="citation book cs2">Roberts, Andrew (2014), "Lawgiver", <i>Napoleon: A Life</i>, Penguin</cite>. Of the commission's 107 plenary sessions, Napoleon chaired 55.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Roberts, Andrew, <i>Napoleon: A Life</i>,"Lawgiver"</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFLobingier1918" class="citation journal cs1">Lobingier, Charles Sumner (1918). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/pdf/1327640.pdf">"Napoleon and His Code"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>Harvard Law Review</i>. <b>32</b> (2): <span class="nowrap">114–</span>134. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F1327640">10.2307/1327640</a>. <a href="JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/1327640">1327640</a>.</cite></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-:1-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:1_6-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:1_6-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://courses.lumenlearning.com/suny-hccc-worldhistory2/chapter/the-napoleonic-code/">"The Napoleonic Code | History of Western Civilization II"</a>. <i>courses.lumenlearning.com</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">30 January</span> 2021</span>.</cite></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-:0-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:0_7-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:0_7-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/abs/history-of-law-in-europe/french-revolution-and-the-law/39F246BD158F001C5ACBFB8B471A6D35">29 - The French Revolution and the Law</a>, in <i>Part IV - The Age of Reforms (1750–1814)</i>, Cambridge University Press, 31 July 2017; Antonio Padoa-Schioppa,
Translated by
Caterina Fitzgerald</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFMohamed_A.M._Ismail2016" class="citation book cs1">Mohamed A.M. Ismail (2016). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=f-gFDAAAQBAJ"><i>Globalization and New International Public Works Agreements in Developing Countries: An Analytical Perspective</i></a>. Routledge. p. 19. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>9781317127031</bdi> – via <a href="Google_Books" title="Google Books">Google Books</a>. <q>All civil codes of Arab Middle Eastern states are based on Napoleonic Codes and were influenced by Egyptian legislation</q></cite></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFMatta1992" class="citation journal cs1">Matta, Liana Fiol (1992). <span class="id-lock-subscription" title="Paid subscription required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/840794">"Civil Law and Common Law in the Legal Method of Puerto Rico"</a></span>. <i><a href="The_American_Journal_of_Comparative_Law" class="mw-redirect" title="The American Journal of Comparative Law">The American Journal of Comparative Law</a></i>. <b>40</b> (4): <span class="nowrap">783–</span>815. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F840794">10.2307/840794</a>. <a href="JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/840794">840794</a>.</cite></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-10">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFIain_Stewart2012" class="citation journal cs1">Iain Stewart (2012). "<i>Mors Codicis</i>: End of the Age of Codification?". <i>Tulane European & Civil Law Forum</i>. <b>27</b>: 17 at 23–24.</cite></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-11">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Constitution of 3 September 1791, 1.11: "<i>Il sera fait un Code de lois civiles communes à tout le Royauame</i>".</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-12">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Cronin, Vincent (1972). <i>Napoleon Bonaparte. An Intimate Biography.</i> pp. 176, 193, 283</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-13">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Eric Descheemaeker, <i>The Division of Wrongs: A Historical Comparative Study</i> (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2009), 128.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-14">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Tom Holmberg, "The Civil Code: an Overview", <i>The Napoleon Series</i>, September 2002, [online] <<a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="https://www.napoleon-series.org/research/government/code/c_code2.html">https://www.napoleon-series.org/research/government/code/c_code2.html</a>>.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-15">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Hollins, <i>Encyclopedia</i>, pp. 605–606.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-16">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Zamoyski, Adam, <i>Napoleon: A Life</i>,"Caesar"</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-Foot02-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Foot02_17-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Foot02_17-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFRoberts,_Andrew2014" class="citation book cs2">Roberts, Andrew (2014), "Lawgiver", <i>Napoleon: A Life</i>, Penguin</cite>. It also failed in the <a href="Tribunate" class="mw-redirect" title="Tribunate">Tribunate</a>.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-18">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Zamoyski, Adam, <i>Napoleon: A Life</i>,"Peace"</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-Foot03-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Foot03_19-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Foot03_19-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFZamoyski,_Adam2018" class="citation book cs2">Zamoyski, Adam (2018), "Caesar", <i>Napoleon: A Life</i>, Basic Books</cite>. It was promulgated as the "Civil Code of the French" (<i>Code civil des Français</i>), but would be known as "the Napoleonic Code" (<i>Code Napoléon</i>)</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-20">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://courses.lumenlearning.com/suny-hccc-worldhistory2/chapter/the-napoleonic-code/">"The Napoleonic Code | History of Western Civilization II"</a>. <i>courses.lumenlearning.com</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">30 January</span> 2021</span>.</cite></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-21">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">"The <i>Code Napoléon</i>: French Legislation on Divorce," <i>Exploring the European Past: Texts & Images</i>, Second Edition, ed. Timothy E. Gregory (Mason: Thomson, 2007), 62–64.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-22">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">"Livre III ... du code pénal". <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=wOcvAAAAMAAJ"><i>Choix de rapports, opinions et discours prononcés à la tribune nationale</i></a> (in French). Vol. VI. Paris: A. Eymery. 1819. p. 320<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">31 March</span> 2008</span>.</cite></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-23">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">"ces délits factices, créés par la superstition, la féodalité, la fiscalité et le despotisme" (id., p 325).</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-24"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-24">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.legifrance.gouv.fr/rechCodeArticle.do?reprise=true&page=1">Code de commerce</a> Retrieved 2011-12-30</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-25"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-25">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"> Adhémar Esmein, <i>A History of Continental Criminal Procedure</i> (1913) pp. 528–616. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/ahistorycontine01mittgoog/page/n28/mode/2up">online</a></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-26"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-26">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFChern2016" class="citation book cs1">Chern, Cyril (4 April 2016). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=J1PhCwAAQBAJ"><i>The Law of Construction Disputes</i></a>. CRC Press. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-1-317-43346-0</bdi>.</cite></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-27"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-27">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://timesmachine.nytimes.com/timesmachine/1895/04/14/102454136.pdf">"French Criminal Procedure"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>New York Times</i>. 14 April 1895. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200603212142/https://timesmachine.nytimes.com/timesmachine/1895/04/14/102454136.pdf">Archived</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> from the original on 3 June 2020<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">14 June</span> 2011</span>.</cite></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-28"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-28">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.legifrance.gouv.fr/initRechCodeArticle.do">"Recherche simple dans les codes en vigueur - Legifrance"</a>. <i>legifrance.gouv.fr</i>.</cite></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-29"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-29">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://boutique.dalloz.fr">"Code civil, Code du travail, tous les livres de droit des Editions Dalloz"</a>. <i>dalloz.fr</i>.</cite></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-30"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-30">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFIain_Stewart2012" class="citation journal cs1">Iain Stewart (2012). "<i>Mors Codicis</i>: End of the Age of Codification?". <i>Tulane European & Civil Law Forum</i>. <b>27</b>: 17 at 24–25.</cite></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-31"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-31">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.legifrance.gouv.fr/Droit-francais/Codification/Rapports-annuels-de-la-CSC">Commission supérieure de codification, <i>Vingt et unième rapport annuel 2010</i></a> (Paris, 2011), 13; quoted and translated, <cite id="CITEREFIain_Stewart2012" class="citation journal cs1">Iain Stewart (2012). "<i>Mors Codicis</i>: End of the Age of Codification?". <i>Tulane European & Civil Law Forum</i>. <b>27</b>: 17 at 25.</cite></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-32"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-32">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.legifrance.gouv.fr/Droit-francais/Codification/Rapports-annuels-de-la-CSC">Commission supérieure de codification, <i>Vingt-deuxième rapport annuel 2011</i></a> (Paris, 2012), 21.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-33"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-33">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.legifrance.gouv.fr/Droit-francais/Codification/Rapports-annuels-de-la-CSC">Commission supérieure de codification, <i>Vingt-quatrième rapport annuel 2013</i></a> (Paris, 2014), 6-7.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-34"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-34">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Senkowska-Gluck, Monika. "Effects of Napoleonic Legislation on the Development of the 19th-century Europe." <i>Acta Poloniae Historica</i> 38 (1978): 185–198. <a href="ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0001-6829">0001-6829</a></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-Arvind_TT;_Stirton_L_2010_1–29-35"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Arvind_TT;_Stirton_L_2010_1–29_35-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Arvind_TT;_Stirton_L_2010_1–29_35-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFArvind_TTStirton_L2010" class="citation journal cs1">Arvind TT; Stirton L (March 2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.today/20130105071047/http://www3.interscience.wiley.com/journal/123270568/abstract">"Explaining the Reception of the Code Napoleon in Germany: a fuzzy-set qualitative comparative analysis"</a>. <i>Legal Studies</i>. <b>30</b> (1): <span class="nowrap">1–</span>29. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fj.1748-121X.2009.00150.x">10.1111/j.1748-121X.2009.00150.x</a>. <a href="S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:53581236">53581236</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www3.interscience.wiley.com/journal/123270568/abstract">the original</a> on 5 January 2013.</cite></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-36"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-36">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20130725045740/http://anndrei.ro/noul-cod-civil-promoveaza-medierea/">"Noul Cod civil promovează medierea"</a>. 5 May 2013. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://anndrei.ro/noul-cod-civil-promoveaza-medierea/">the original</a> on 25 July 2013<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">31 May</span> 2013</span>.</cite></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-37"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-37">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.elsevier.es/en-revista-mexican-law-review-123-articulo-the-need-remove-civil-code-S1870057817300082">The Need to Remove the Civil Code from Mexican Commercial Laws: the Case of "Offers" and "Firm Promises"</a>; Mexican Law review Vol. 10. Issue 1, pages 21-44 (July - December 2017)
DOI: 10.22201/iij.24485306e.2017.19.11382</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-38"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-38">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFRabel1950" class="citation cs2">Rabel, Ernst (1950), "Private Laws of Western Civilization: Part II. The French Civil Code", <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://digitalcommons.law.lsu.edu/lalrev/vol10/iss2/2/"><i>Louisiana Law Review</i></a>, vol. 10, p. 110<span class="reference-accessdate">, retrieved <span class="nowrap">1 December</span> 2016</span></cite></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-39"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-39">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.mauritiuscounsel.com/mauritian-legal-system/">"The Mauritian Legal System"</a>. January 2018.</cite></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-40"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-40">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ilo.org/dyn/natlex/docs/ELECTRONIC/88152/114145/F-172904586/MUS88152%20Fre.pdf">"electronic"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>www.ilo.org</i>.</cite></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-41"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-41">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ilo.org/dyn/natlex/docs/ELECTRONIC/88152/114145/F-172904586/MUS88152%20Fre.pdf">Code Civil Mauricien</a></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-42"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-42">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFBonfield2006" class="citation web cs1">Bonfield, Lloyd (2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://go.galegroup.com.libezp.lib.lsu.edu/ps/i.do?id=GALE%7CCX3446900575&v=2.1&u=lln_alsu&it=r&p=GVRL&sw=w&asid=be47621d0f52559f686e81e7fc83d650">"Napoleonic Code"</a>. <i>Gale Virtual Reference Library</i>. Charles Scribner's Sons<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">17 February</span> 2016</span>.</cite></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-43"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-43">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Engber, Daniel. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.slate.com/articles/news_and_politics/explainer/2005/09/louisianas_napoleon_complex.html">Is Louisiana Under Napoleonic Code?</a> Slate.com, retrieved 11 September 2014</span>
</li>
</ol></div></div>
<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="General_and_cited_references">General and cited references</h3></div>
<ul><li>G. Levasseur, "Napoléon et l’élaboration des codes répressifs", in <i>Mélanges en hommage à Jean Imbert</i> (Paris, PUF, 1989) p. 371</li>
<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20060116023443/http://ledroitcriminel.free.fr/la_legislation_criminelle/anciens_textes.htm"><i>Code Pénal</i> and <i>Code d'Instruction Criminelle</i> – Original French Texts and other old legislation</a></li></ul>
<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2></div>
<ul><li>Crabb, John H., trans. <i>The French Civil Code</i>, revised ed. (as amended to 1 July 1994). Littleton, Colo.: Fred B. Rothman & Co.; Deventer, The Netherlands: Kluwer Law and Taxation, 1995.</li>
<li>Fairgrieve, Duncan, ed. <i>The Influence of the French Civil Code on the Common Law and Beyond</i>. London: British Institute of International and Comparative Law, 2007.</li>
<li>Fisher, H. A. L. "The Codes", in <i>Cambridge Modern History</i>, ed. A. W. Ward (1906). Vol. IX, pp. 148–179. An old standard scholarly summary. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.55514">online free</a></li>
<li>Halperin, Jean-Louis. <i>The French Civil Code</i>. Trans. Tony Weir. London: Routledge, 2006.</li>
<li>Josselin, Jean-Michel, and Alain Marciano. "The Making of the French Civil Code: An Economic Interpretation". <i>European Journal of Law and Economics</i> 14.3 (2002): 193–203. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Alain_Marciano/publication/5145610_The_Making_of_the_French_Civil_Code_An_Economic_Interpretation/links/580f0e9a08aef766ef115982.pdf">online</a></li>
<li>Lobingier, Charles Summer. "Napoleon and His Code". <i>Harvard Law Rev.</i> 32 (1918): 114+. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/jstor-1327640">online</a></li>
<li>Lydorf, Claudia (2012), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://ieg-ego.eu/en/threads/crossroads/legal-families/claudia-lydorf-romance-legal-family?set_language=en&-C=">Romance Legal Family</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ieg-ego.eu/">EGO – European History Online</a>, Mainz: <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ieg-mainz.de/likecms/index.php">Institute of European History</a>, retrieved: 25 March 2021 (<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://d-nb.info/1043606750/34">pdf</a>).</li>
<li>Schwartz, Bernard, ed. <i>The Code Napoleon and the common-law world: the sesquicentennial lectures delivered at the Law Center of New York University, December 13–15, 1954</i> (The Lawbook Exchange, Ltd., 1998). 438 pp.</li>
<li>Séjean, Michel et al., eds. <i>French civil code, 2020: English, French, Arabic</i>. Trans. David W. Gruning et al. LexisNexis; Paris: Sader Group, 2020.</li>
<li>Smithers, William W. "The Code Napoléon". <i>American Law Register</i> (1901): 127–147. <a href="JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/3306716">3306716</a>.</li>
<li>Tunc, André. "Grand Outlines of the Code Napoleon". <i>Tulane Law Review</i> 29 (1954): 431+.</li>
<li>Tunc, André. "Husband and Wife Under French Law: Past, Present, Future". <i>University of Pennsylvania Law Review</i> 104 (1955): 1064+.<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://scholarship.law.upenn.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=7495&context=penn_law_review">online</a></li></ul>
<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2></div>
<style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1290876196">
/* start https://en.wikipedia.org/ */
.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .infobox .side-box{font-size:100%}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-imageright{padding:2px 0.9em 2px 0;text-align:center}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .side-box-flex{display:flex;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{flex:1;min-width:0}}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .side-box{width:238px}.mw-parser-output .side-box-right{clear:right;float:right;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-left{margin-right:1em}}
/* end https://en.wikipedia.org/ */
</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1237033735">
/* start https://en.wikipedia.org/ */
@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox{display:none!important}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}
/* end https://en.wikipedia.org/ */
</style><div class="side-box side-box-right sistersitebox"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1126788409">
/* start https://en.wikipedia.org/ */
.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0}
/* end https://en.wikipedia.org/ */
</style>
<div class="side-box-flex">
<div class="side-box-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"></span></div>
<div class="side-box-text plainlist"><a href="Wikisource" title="Wikisource">Wikisource</a> has the text of the <a href="Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica_Eleventh_Edition" title="Encyclopædia Britannica Eleventh Edition">1911 <i>Encyclopædia Britannica</i></a> article "<span style="font-weight:bold;"><a href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/1911_Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica/Code_Napol%C3%A9on" class="extiw external" title="wikisource:1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Code Napoléon">Code Napoléon</a></span>".</div></div>
</div>
<ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.napoleon-series.org/research/government/c_code.html">English translation of the original text</a></li>
<li><cite class="citation book cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/stream/codenapoleonorf00statgoog#page/n4/mode/2up"><i>The Code Napoleon, or the French Civil Code; Literally Translated from the Original and Official Edition, Published at Paris, in 1804 by A Barrister at the Inner Temple</i></a> (1st ed.). London: Printed for Charles Hunter Booksellers<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">30 November</span> 2016</span> – via the <a href="Internet_Archive" title="Internet Archive">Internet Archive</a>.</cite></li>
<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.cambaceres.org/vie-poli/code-civ/cod-civi.htm">Beginnings of Napoleonic Code</a></li>
<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://beta.legifrance.gouv.fr/codes/texte_lc/LEGITEXT000006070721/2021-07-01">Current French Text: Légifrance</a></li>
<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20140324190607/http://www.francemagazine.org/articles/issue70/article94.asp?issue_id=70&article_id=94">"The 'Other' Little Red Book"</a>. Interview with legal historian Jean-Louis Halpérin in <i><a href="France_Magazine" title="France Magazine">France Magazine</a></i>.</li>
<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://frenchrevolution.us/napoleonic-code/">Napoleonic Code</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20240326101622/https://frenchrevolution.us/napoleonic-code/">Archived</a> 26 March 2024 at the <a href="Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></li></ul>
<div class="navbox-styles"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236075235">
/* start https://en.wikipedia.org/ */
.mw-parser-output .navbox{box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;width:100%;clear:both;font-size:88%;text-align:center;padding:1px;margin:1em auto 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbox{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox-styles+.navbox{margin-top:-1px}.mw-parser-output .navbox-inner,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{width:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-title,.mw-parser-output .navbox-abovebelow{padding:0.25em 1em;line-height:1.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group{white-space:nowrap;text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{background-color:#fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-list{line-height:1.5em;border-color:#fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-list-with-group{text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid}.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-group,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-image,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-list{border-top:2px solid #fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-title{background-color:#ccf}.mw-parser-output .navbox-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-title{background-color:#ddf}.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-abovebelow{background-color:#e6e6ff}.mw-parser-output .navbox-even{background-color:#f7f7f7}.mw-parser-output .navbox-odd{background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ul,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ul{padding:0.125em 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbar{display:block;font-size:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-title .navbar{float:left;text-align:left;margin-right:0.5em}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .navbox-image img{max-width:none!important}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .navbox{display:none!important}}
/* end https://en.wikipedia.org/ */
</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Civil_codes_of_Europe125" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Civil_codes_of_Europe125" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="Civil_code" title="Civil code">Civil codes</a> of Europe</div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Sovereign states</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li>Albania</li>
<li>Andorra</li>
<li>Armenia</li>
<li><a href="Civil_Code_of_Austria" class="mw-redirect" title="Civil Code of Austria">Austria</a></li>
<li>Azerbaijan</li>
<li>Belarus</li>
<li>Belgium</li>
<li>Bosnia and Herzegovina</li>
<li>Bulgaria</li>
<li>Croatia</li>
<li>Cyprus</li>
<li>Czech Republic</li>
<li>Denmark</li>
<li>Estonia</li>
<li>Finland</li>
<li><a href="Civil_Code_of_France" class="mw-redirect" title="Civil Code of France">France</a></li>
<li>Georgia</li>
<li><a href="Civil_Code_of_Germany" class="mw-redirect" title="Civil Code of Germany">Germany</a></li>
<li>Greece</li>
<li>Hungary</li>
<li>Iceland</li>
<li>Ireland</li>
<li><a href="Civil_Code_of_Italy" class="mw-redirect" title="Civil Code of Italy">Italy</a></li>
<li>Kazakhstan</li>
<li>Latvia</li>
<li>Liechtenstein</li>
<li><a href="Civil_Code_of_Lithuania" title="Civil Code of Lithuania">Lithuania</a></li>
<li>Luxembourg</li>
<li>Malta</li>
<li>Moldova</li>
<li>Monaco</li>
<li>Montenegro</li>
<li><a href="Civil_Code_of_the_Netherlands" class="mw-redirect" title="Civil Code of the Netherlands">Netherlands</a></li>
<li>North Macedonia</li>
<li>Norway</li>
<li>Poland</li>
<li><a href="Civil_Code_of_Portugal" class="mw-redirect" title="Civil Code of Portugal">Portugal</a></li>
<li><a href="Civil_Code_of_Romania" title="Civil Code of Romania">Romania</a></li>
<li><a href="Civil_Code_of_Russia" title="Civil Code of Russia">Russia</a></li>
<li>San Marino</li>
<li>Serbia</li>
<li>Slovakia</li>
<li>Slovenia</li>
<li><a href="Civil_Code_of_Spain" title="Civil Code of Spain">Spain</a></li>
<li>Sweden</li>
<li><a href="Civil_Code_of_Switzerland" class="mw-redirect" title="Civil Code of Switzerland">Switzerland</a></li>
<li><a href="Civil_Code_of_Turkey" class="mw-redirect" title="Civil Code of Turkey">Turkey</a></li>
<li><a href="Civil_Code_of_Ukraine" title="Civil Code of Ukraine">Ukraine</a></li>
<li>United Kingdom</li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">States with limited<br>recognition</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li>Abkhazia</li>
<li>Kosovo</li>
<li>Northern Cyprus</li>
<li>South Ossetia</li>
<li>Transnistria</li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Dependencies and<br>other entities</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li>Åland</li>
<li>Faroe Islands</li>
<li>Gibraltar</li>
<li>Guernsey</li>
<li>Isle of Man</li>
<li>Jersey</li>
<li>Svalbard</li></ul>
</div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>
<div class="navbox-styles"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Napoleon4427" style=";wide;padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="background-color:#C3D6EF;color:inherit;"><div id="Napoleon4427" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="Napoleon" title="Napoleon">Napoleon</a></div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2" style="background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;"><div><div class="hlist">
<ul><li><a href="Napoleonic_era" title="Napoleonic era">Napoleonic era</a>
<ul><li><a href="Timeline_of_the_Napoleonic_era" title="Timeline of the Napoleonic era">timeline</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="First_French_Empire" title="First French Empire">First French Empire</a></li></ul>
</div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;"><a href="Timeline_of_the_Napoleonic_era" title="Timeline of the Napoleonic era">Life and career</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li>Stay in Auxonne</li>
<li><a href="Coup_of_18_Brumaire" title="Coup of 18 Brumaire">Coup of 18 Brumaire</a></li>
<li><a href="French_Consulate" title="French Consulate">Consulate</a></li>
<li><a href="Assassination_attempts_on_Napoleon_Bonaparte" title="Assassination attempts on Napoleon Bonaparte">Assassination attempts</a></li>
<li><a href="Le_souper_de_Beaucaire" title="Le souper de Beaucaire">Le souper de Beaucaire</a></li>
<li>Constitutions
<ul><li><a href="Constitution_of_the_Year_VIII" title="Constitution of the Year VIII">1799</a></li>
<li><a href="Constitution_of_the_Year_X" title="Constitution of the Year X">1802</a></li>
<li><a href="Constitution_of_the_Year_XII" title="Constitution of the Year XII">1804</a></li>
<li><a href="Charter_of_1815" title="Charter of 1815">1815</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="Napoleonic_Wars" title="Napoleonic Wars">Napoleonic Wars</a></li>
<li><a href="Coronation_of_Napoleon" title="Coronation of Napoleon">Coronation</a></li>
<li><a href="Louisiana_Purchase" title="Louisiana Purchase">Sale of Louisiana</a></li>
<li><a href="Napoleon's_planned_invasion_of_the_United_Kingdom" title="Napoleon's planned invasion of the United Kingdom">Planned invasion of the United Kingdom</a></li>
<li><a href="Napoleon_in_Holland" title="Napoleon in Holland">Holland</a></li>
<li><i><a href="Mesures_usuelles" title="Mesures usuelles">Mesures usuelles</a></i></li>
<li><a href="Napoleonic_looting_of_art" title="Napoleonic looting of art">Looting of art</a></li>
<li><a href="Napoleonic_tactics" title="Napoleonic tactics">Tactics</a></li>
<li><a href="Napoleonic_weaponry_and_warfare" title="Napoleonic weaponry and warfare">Weaponry and warfare</a></li>
<li><a href="Treaty_of_Fontainebleau_(1814)" title="Treaty of Fontainebleau (1814)">1st abdication</a>
<ul><li><a href="Principality_of_Elba" title="Principality of Elba">1st exile</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="Route_Napol%C3%A9on" title="Route Napoléon">Route Napoléon</a></li>
<li><a href="Abdication_of_Napoleon%2C_1815" class="mw-redirect" title="Abdication of Napoleon, 1815">2nd abdication</a>
<ul><li><a href="Napoleon_I's_exile_to_St._Helena" title="Napoleon I's exile to St. Helena">2nd exile</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="Death_of_Napoleon" class="mw-redirect" title="Death of Napoleon">Death of Napoleon</a>
<ul><li><a href="Death_mask_of_Napoleon" title="Death mask of Napoleon">mask</a></li></ul></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;"><a href="Military_career_of_Napoleon" title="Military career of Napoleon">Battles and wars</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><b><a href="French_Revolutionary_Wars" title="French Revolutionary Wars">French Revolutionary Wars</a></b></li>
<li><a href="Siege_of_Toulon_(1793)" title="Siege of Toulon (1793)">Siege of Toulon</a></li>
<li><b><a href="French_Revolution" title="French Revolution">French Revolution</a></b></li>
<li><i><a href="13_Vend%C3%A9miaire" title="13 Vendémiaire">13 Vendémiaire</a></i></li>
<li><a href="Battle_of_Lodi" title="Battle of Lodi">Battle of Lodi</a></li>
<li><a href="Battle_of_Arcole" title="Battle of Arcole">Battle of Arcole</a></li>
<li><a href="Battle_of_Rivoli" title="Battle of Rivoli">Battle of Rivoli</a></li>
<li><b><a href="French_campaign_in_Egypt_and_Syria" class="mw-redirect" title="French campaign in Egypt and Syria">French campaign in Egypt and Syria</a></b></li>
<li><a href="Battle_of_the_Pyramids" title="Battle of the Pyramids">Battle of the Pyramids</a></li>
<li><a href="Siege_of_Jaffa" title="Siege of Jaffa">Siege of Jaffa</a></li>
<li><a href="Battle_of_Marengo" title="Battle of Marengo">Battle of Marengo</a></li>
<li><b><a href="War_of_the_Third_Coalition" title="War of the Third Coalition">War of the Third Coalition</a></b></li>
<li><a href="Battle_of_Austerlitz" title="Battle of Austerlitz">Battle of Austerlitz</a></li>
<li><b><a href="War_of_the_Fourth_Coalition" title="War of the Fourth Coalition">War of the Fourth Coalition</a></b></li>
<li><a href="Battle_of_Jena" class="mw-redirect" title="Battle of Jena">Battle of Jena</a></li>
<li><b><a href="War_of_the_Fifth_Coalition" title="War of the Fifth Coalition">War of the Fifth Coalition</a></b></li>
<li><a href="Battle_of_Wagram" title="Battle of Wagram">Battle of Wagram</a></li>
<li><b><a href="French_invasion_of_Russia" title="French invasion of Russia">French invasion of Russia</a></b></li>
<li><a href="Battle_of_Borodino" title="Battle of Borodino">Battle of Borodino</a></li>
<li><b><a href="War_of_the_Sixth_Coalition" title="War of the Sixth Coalition">War of the Sixth Coalition</a></b></li>
<li><a href="Battle_of_Leipzig" title="Battle of Leipzig">Battle of Leipzig</a></li>
<li><a href="Battle_of_Vauchamps" title="Battle of Vauchamps">Battle of Vauchamps</a></li>
<li><a href="Battle_of_Arcis-sur-Aube" title="Battle of Arcis-sur-Aube">Battle of Arcis-sur-Aube</a></li>
<li><b><a href="Hundred_Days" title="Hundred Days">Hundred Days</a></b></li>
<li><a href="Battle_of_Ligny" title="Battle of Ligny">Battle of Ligny</a></li>
<li><a href="Battle_of_Waterloo" title="Battle of Waterloo">Battle of Waterloo</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;">Views</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="Napoleon_and_the_Catholic_Church" title="Napoleon and the Catholic Church">Catholic Church</a>
<ul><li><a href="Concordat_of_1801" title="Concordat of 1801">Concordat of 1801</a></li>
<li><a href="Napoleon_Tiara" title="Napoleon Tiara">Tiara</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="Napoleon_and_the_Jews" title="Napoleon and the Jews">Jewish people</a>
<ul><li><a href="Grand_Sanhedrin" title="Grand Sanhedrin">Grand Sanhedrin</a></li>
<li><a href="Infamous_Decree" title="Infamous Decree">Infamous Decree</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="Napoleon_and_Protestants" title="Napoleon and Protestants">Protestants</a>
<ul><li><a href="Organic_Articles" title="Organic Articles">Organic Articles</a></li></ul></li>
<li>Slavery
<ul><li><a href="Law_of_20_May_1802" title="Law of 20 May 1802">Law of 20 May 1802</a></li>
<li><a href="Saint-Domingue_expedition" title="Saint-Domingue expedition">Saint-Domingue expedition</a></li></ul></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;">Homes and honours</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="Arc_de_Triomphe" title="Arc de Triomphe">Arc de Triomphe</a></li>
<li><a href="H%C3%B4tel_Bonaparte" title="Hôtel Bonaparte">Hôtel Bonaparte</a></li>
<li><a href="Ch%C3%A2teau_de_Malmaison" title="Château de Malmaison">Château de Malmaison</a></li>
<li><a href="Column_of_the_Grande_Arm%C3%A9e" title="Column of the Grande Armée">Column of the Grande Armée</a></li>
<li><a href="Emperor_Napoleon_I_Monument" title="Emperor Napoleon I Monument">Emperor Napoleon I Monument</a></li>
<li><a href="Equestrian_statue_of_Napoleon" title="Equestrian statue of Napoleon">Equestrian statue</a></li>
<li><a href="Palace_of_Fontainebleau" title="Palace of Fontainebleau">Palace of Fontainebleau</a></li>
<li><a href="H%C3%B4tel_des_Invalides" class="mw-redirect" title="Hôtel des Invalides">Hôtel des Invalides</a></li>
<li><a href="Longwood_House" title="Longwood House">Longwood House</a></li>
<li><a href="Maison_Bonaparte" title="Maison Bonaparte">Maison Bonaparte</a></li>
<li><i><a href="Napoleon_as_Mars_the_Peacemaker" title="Napoleon as Mars the Peacemaker">Napoleon as Mars the Peacemaker</a></i>
<ul><li><a href="Napoleon_as_Mars_the_Peacemaker_(Milan)" title="Napoleon as Mars the Peacemaker (Milan)">Milan</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="Rue_de_la_Victoire" title="Rue de la Victoire">Rue de la Victoire</a></li>
<li><a href="Vend%C3%B4me_Column" class="mw-redirect" title="Vendôme Column">Vendôme Column</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;"><a href="Legacy_of_Napoleon" title="Legacy of Napoleon">Legacy and memory</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="Bank_of_France" title="Bank of France">Bank of France</a></li>
<li><a href="Bonapartism" title="Bonapartism">Bonapartism</a></li>
<li><a href="Conseil_d'%C3%89tat" title="Conseil d'État">Conseil d'État</a></li>
<li><a href="Cultural_depictions_of_Napoleon" title="Cultural depictions of Napoleon">Cultural depictions</a></li>
<li><a href="China_is_a_sleeping_giant" title="China is a sleeping giant">"China is a sleeping giant" quote</a></li>
<li><a href="German_Romanticism" title="German Romanticism">German Romanticism</a></li>
<li><a href="Memorial_of_Saint_Helena" class="mw-redirect" title="Memorial of Saint Helena">Memorial of Saint Helena</a></li>
<li><a href="Napoleonic_propaganda" title="Napoleonic propaganda">Propaganda</a></li>
<li><a href="Napoleon's_tomb" title="Napoleon's tomb">Tomb</a>
<ul><li><i><a href="Retour_des_cendres" title="Retour des cendres">Retour des cendres</a></i></li>
<li><a href="Napoleon's_penis" title="Napoleon's penis">Penis</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="Napoleonic_studies" title="Napoleonic studies">Studies</a></li>
<li><a href="Symphony_No._3_(Beethoven)" title="Symphony No. 3 (Beethoven)">Symphony No. 3 (Beethoven)</a></li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;"><a href="House_of_Bonaparte" title="House of Bonaparte">Family</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
<ul><li><a href="Jos%C3%A9phine_de_Beauharnais" title="Joséphine de Beauharnais">Joséphine de Beauharnais</a> (first wife)</li>
<li><a href="Marie_Louise%2C_Duchess_of_Parma" title="Marie Louise, Duchess of Parma">Marie Louise</a> (second wife)</li>
<li><a href="Charles_L%C3%A9on" title="Charles Léon">Charles Léon</a> (son)</li>
<li><a href="Alexandre_Walewski" class="mw-redirect" title="Alexandre Walewski">Alexandre Walewski</a> (son)</li>
<li><a href="Napoleon_II" title="Napoleon II">Napoleon II</a> (son)</li>
<li><a href="Carlo_Maria_Buonaparte" class="mw-redirect" title="Carlo Maria Buonaparte">Carlo Maria Buonaparte</a> (father)</li>
<li><a href="Letizia_Ramolino" class="mw-redirect" title="Letizia Ramolino">Letizia Ramolino</a> (mother)</li>
<li><a href="Joseph_Bonaparte" title="Joseph Bonaparte">Joseph Bonaparte</a> (brother)</li>
<li><a href="Lucien_Bonaparte" title="Lucien Bonaparte">Lucien Bonaparte</a> (brother)</li>
<li><a href="Louis_Bonaparte" title="Louis Bonaparte">Louis Bonaparte</a> (brother)</li>
<li><a href="J%C3%A9r%C3%B4me_Bonaparte" title="Jérôme Bonaparte">Jérôme Bonaparte</a> (brother)</li>
<li><a href="Caroline_Bonaparte" title="Caroline Bonaparte">Caroline Bonaparte</a> (sister)</li>
<li><a href="Pauline_Bonaparte" title="Pauline Bonaparte">Pauline Bonaparte</a> (sister)</li>
<li><a href="Elisa_Bonaparte" title="Elisa Bonaparte">Elisa Bonaparte</a> (sister)</li></ul>
</div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2" style="background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;"><div><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"></span></span> Category / <span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Commons page"></span></span> <a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:_Napoleon_I_of_France" class="extiw external" title="commons:Category: Napoleon I of France">Commons</a></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>
<div class="navbox-styles"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox authority-control" aria-labelledby="Authority_control_databases_frameless&#124;text-top&#124;10px&#124;alt=Edit_this_at_Wikidata&#124;link=https&#58;//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q151060#identifiers&#124;class=noprint&#124;Edit_this_at_Wikidata799" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Authority_control_databases_frameless&#124;text-top&#124;10px&#124;alt=Edit_this_at_Wikidata&#124;link=https&#58;//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q151060#identifiers&#124;class=noprint&#124;Edit_this_at_Wikidata799" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Authority control databases </div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">International</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://viaf.org/viaf/186336275">VIAF</a></span></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">National</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://d-nb.info/gnd/4126767-9">Germany</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://id.loc.gov/authorities/n86004764">United States</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nli.org.il/en/authorities/987007511292405171">Israel</a></span></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://hls-dhs-dss.ch/fr/articles/041752">Historical Dictionary of Switzerland</a></span></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>
<style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1130092004">
/* start https://en.wikipedia.org/ */
.mw-parser-output .portal-bar{font-size:88%;font-weight:bold;display:flex;justify-content:center;align-items:baseline}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-bordered{padding:0 2em;background-color:#fdfdfd;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;clear:both;margin:1em auto 0}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-related{font-size:100%;justify-content:flex-start}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-unbordered{padding:0 1.7em;margin-left:0}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-header{margin:0 1em 0 0.5em;flex:0 0 auto;min-height:24px}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-content{display:flex;flex-flow:row wrap;flex:0 1 auto;padding:0.15em 0;column-gap:1em;align-items:baseline;margin:0;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-content-related{margin:0;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-item{display:inline-block;margin:0.15em 0.2em;min-height:24px;line-height:24px}@media screen and (max-width:768px){.mw-parser-output .portal-bar{font-size:88%;font-weight:bold;display:flex;flex-flow:column wrap;align-items:baseline}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-header{text-align:center;flex:0;padding-left:0.5em;margin:0 auto}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-related{font-size:100%;align-items:flex-start}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-content{display:flex;flex-flow:row wrap;align-items:center;flex:0;column-gap:1em;border-top:1px solid #a2a9b1;margin:0 auto;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-content-related{border-top:none;margin:0;list-style:none}}.mw-parser-output .navbox+link+.portal-bar,.mw-parser-output .navbox+style+.portal-bar,.mw-parser-output .navbox+link+.portal-bar-bordered,.mw-parser-output .navbox+style+.portal-bar-bordered,.mw-parser-output .sister-bar+link+.portal-bar,.mw-parser-output .sister-bar+style+.portal-bar,.mw-parser-output .portal-bar+.navbox-styles+.navbox,.mw-parser-output .portal-bar+.navbox-styles+.sister-bar{margin-top:-1px}
/* end https://en.wikipedia.org/ */
</style></div><!--htdig_noindex--><div><div class="zim-footer">
This article is issued from <a class="external text" title="Last edited on 2025-07-29" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/?title=Napoleonic_Code&oldid=1303175499">Wikipedia</a>. The text is available under <a class="external text" href="https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/deed.en">Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike 4.0</a> unless otherwise noted. Additional terms may apply for the media files.
</div>
</div><!--/htdig_noindex--></div>
</div>
</main>
</div>
</div>
</div>
</body></html>